Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) exploit the Seebeck effect: temperature gradients across semiconductor junctions produce electric current. New skutterudite, half-Heusler, and organic materials boost conversion efficiency above 10%, while additive manufacturing enables custom heat exchangers that clamp onto exhaust stacks, kilns, or server racks. Because TEGs have no moving parts, they operate silently, endure harsh environments, and require minimal maintenance.
Steel mills, cement plants, and chemical facilities mount modular TEG panels on flue gas ducts to capture megawatts of waste heat that previously vented to the atmosphere. Heavy-duty vehicles and ships integrate TEGs to power onboard electronics, improving fuel economy. Data centers pair liquid-cooled TEG blocks with immersion racks to offset a portion of their power draw. Combined with thermal storage, TEGs can trickle-charge batteries or run sensors in remote infrastructure.
Technology maturity is TRL 6: costs remain high per kilowatt, and thermal interfaces must balance efficiency with minimal process disruption. Public funding through DOE, EU Horizon, and Japanese green innovation programs supports pilot lines, while carbon-pricing policies make waste-heat recovery more attractive. As material science improves and manufacturing scales, TEG systems could become standard retrofits in energy-intensive industries.
